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Let’s be clear – Christopher Columbus never set foot in what is now the United States. His four voyages (1492–1504) were mostly to the Caribbean, including islands like Hispaniola (Haiti and the Dominican Republic), Cuba, and Puerto Rico. Because of his reports though, Spain and other European nations ramped up exploration and colonization efforts.

Who Found North America After Columbus’s Voyages?

Columbus’ voyages opened the door for others to follow, and while he didn’t personally land in North America, Spanish explorers soon did. Some key figures:

• Juan Ponce de León (1513) – The first recorded European to land in what is now the U.S. He explored Florida, thinking it might be an island, and looked for riches and possibly the “Fountain of Youth.”
• Hernando de Soto (1539-1542) – Led a massive expedition through Florida, Georgia, the Carolinas, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, and Arkansas.
• Francisco Vázquez de Coronado (1540-1542) – Explored the American Southwest in search of the fabled Seven Cities of Gold.
• Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca (1528-1536) – Survived a shipwreck off the Texas coast and wandered through the Southwest, eventually reaching Mexico.

Who Found North America Before Columbus’s Voyages?

Before Columbus, Leif Erikson (c. 1000 AD) and other Norse explorers had briefly settled in Vinland, which is in modern-day Canada (Newfoundland), but they didn’t stay permanently. 

There are several theories about pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact with the Americas beyond the well-documented Norse explorations. While none of these have been definitively proven, they are interesting possibilities based on historical records, oral traditions, and some archaeological findings. Here’s a breakdown of the most notable claims:

1. West Africans (Mali Empire, ~1300s)

• Theory: Some historians and researchers believe that West Africans, particularly from the Mali Empire, may have reached the Americas before Columbus.
• Evidence:
  • Malian Naval Expedition (Abubakari II): According to Arab historians like Al-Umari, Mansa Abubakari II, the ruler of Mali before Mansa Musa, abdicated his throne around 1311 to explore the Atlantic. It’s said he sent a fleet of 200 ships first, then a second fleet of 2,000 ships. Some speculate these ships may have reached South America or the Caribbean.
  • Olmec and African Artifacts: Some researchers point to the large stone heads of the Olmecs (ancient Mesoamerican civilization) as having African features, though this is debated.
  • Pre-Columbian African plants in the Americas: Some argue that plants like the banana and certain yams, which originated in Africa, were present in the Americas before European contact.
  • Columbus’ Observations: Columbus himself wrote that when he arrived in the Caribbean, the Indigenous people spoke of “black-skinned people who had arrived in boats from the south and southeast.”

2. Chinese Voyages (Zheng He’s Fleet, Early 1400s)

• Theory: A massive Chinese fleet, led by Admiral Zheng He during the Ming Dynasty (early 1400s), may have reached the Americas.
• Evidence:
  • Gavin Menzies’ Book (“1421: The Year China Discovered America”) – Menzies argues that maps and accounts suggest Zheng He’s treasure fleets traveled to the Americas decades before Columbus. However, his work is controversial and not widely accepted by mainstream historians.
  • Asian Chickens in South America? – DNA analysis of pre-Columbian chicken bones found in Chile suggests Polynesian or Asian origins, meaning there was some trans-Pacific contact before the Europeans.
  • Chinese-Style Artifacts and Maps: Some researchers claim that old Chinese-style maps depict the Americas before Columbus’ time, but these claims are disputed.
  • Ancient Chinese Writings in California? – There are petroglyphs in California that some claim resemble ancient Chinese script, but there’s no clear evidence linking them to early Chinese explorers.

3. Polynesians (Pre-1400s)

• Theory: The Polynesians, famous for their long-distance ocean voyages, may have reached South America.
• Evidence:
  • Sweet Potatoes (Kumara): This South American crop was found growing in Polynesia before European contact, strongly suggesting that Polynesians had contact with Indigenous South Americans.
  • DNA Evidence: Some genetic studies suggest a connection between Polynesians and some Indigenous South American populations, particularly on the coast of modern-day Chile.
  • Boat-Building and Navigation Skills: The Polynesians had advanced navigational skills and ocean-going canoes, making the trip to South America possible.

4. Middle Eastern or Phoenician Sailors (~1000 BC)

• Theory: Some believe that the ancient Phoenicians (renowned sailors from the Mediterranean) might have reached the Americas long before Columbus.
• Evidence:
  • Copper Mining in Michigan: Some claim that massive ancient copper mines in Michigan’s Upper Peninsula, possibly dating back at least 8,000 years, were used by Old World traders. There is no definitive proof linking this to the Phoenicians. It is also possible the indigenous peoples of America were simply way more advanced than once thought.
  • Phoenician-Like Inscriptions: Some carvings in South America and the U.S. (such as the Paraíba Stone in Brazil) allegedly contain Phoenician writing, but these are widely considered forgeries.
  • Similarity in Shipbuilding Techniques: Some ship designs found in ancient America resemble Phoenician ships, such as the Totora Reed Boats (Peru & Bolivia), Maya Trade Canoes (Mexico & Central America), Huastec Canoes (Mexico, Gulf Coast), and Chinchorro Reed Boats (Chile & Peru). 

5. Irish Monks (St. Brendan, ~500 AD)

• Theory: Irish monks, particularly St. Brendan the Navigator, may have sailed to North America.
• Evidence:
  • The Voyage of St. Brendan: A medieval Irish text describes Brendan’s journey across the Atlantic, possibly reaching North America.
  • Tim Severin’s 1976 Experiment: Severin built a leather boat similar to what Brendan may have used and successfully sailed from Ireland to Newfoundland, proving that such a journey was possible.
  • Cliff Dwellings in West Virginia: Some claim that structures in the Appalachian region resemble early Irish monastic buildings.

I have to pause here for a moment to expand on these Cliff Dwellings. While mainstream archaeology attributes these to Indigenous peoples, particularly the Adena (1000 BCE – 200 CE) and Fort Ancient (1000–1750 CE) cultures, alternative theories suggest possible pre-Columbian contact. Here’s a list of notable structures:

1. Burnt House (West Virginia)

• Estimated Date: Unclear, but some claim pre-Columbian (before 1492).
• Description: Stone structures in cliffside formations. Some theorists compare their dry-stone masonry techniques to early Irish monastic beehive huts.

2. The Grave Creek Mound (Moundsville, West Virginia)

• Estimated Date: Built around 250–150 BCE (Adena culture).
• Description: A large earthen mound, sometimes associated with possible pre-Columbian contact theories, though attributed to Native American builders.

3. Cliff Dwellings at Hawks Nest (West Virginia)

• Estimated Date: Possibly 1000–1500 CE.
• Description: Rock shelters with evidence of ancient habitation. Some claim similarities to early European stone structures, but no definitive proof exists.

4. Red River Gorge Rock Shelters (Kentucky)

• Estimated Date: Occupied as early as 8000 BCE, with later use around 1000–1500 CE.
• Description: Natural rock shelters with evidence of habitation, some containing stone structures resembling Old World dry masonry.

While these sites are often linked to Native American civilizations, fringe theories suggest a connection to early Irish monks or other European travelers before Columbus. However, mainstream archaeology does not support this.

6. Japanese or Siberian Contact

• Theory: Some suggest that ancient peoples from Asia may have traveled to the Americas before Columbus.
• Evidence:
  • Kennewick Man (Washington State, ~9,000 years old): Some features of this ancient skeleton resemble those of the Ainu people of Japan rather than Native Americans. Initially, some researchers noted that his skull shape differed from modern Indigenous groups, leading to speculation about possible non-Native ancestry, but DNA analysis later confirmed he was closely related to modern Native American tribes, particularly the Colville Tribe of the Pacific Northwest. Perhaps finding the remains of his ancestors will reveal a closer DNA match to Asian origins and reopen this debate.
  • Ancient Pottery Similarities: Some pottery styles in Ecuador and Japan bear striking similarities, hinting at potential early contact.

While none of these theories have definitive proof like Columbus’ voyages or the Viking settlements in Canada, they raise interesting possibilities. Some, like Polynesian-South American contact, have stronger evidence (e.g., sweet potatoes, genetic links). Others, like the Chinese and West African theories, remain speculative but are still debated.

Okay, back to the mainstream story we’re all mostly familiar with – 

The Mayflower and English Settlements

The Mayflower (1620) carried English Pilgrims (Separatists from the Church of England) to Plymouth, Massachusetts, where they aimed to form a religious colony. However, they were not the first English settlers in North America.

Who was already there before the Pilgrims?

• Jamestown (1607) – The first permanent English settlement in North America, established in Virginia 13 years before Plymouth.
• Native American civilizations – The Pilgrims encountered the Wampanoag people, who had already been devastated by European diseases brought by earlier explorers and traders.
• French and Spanish settlements – Spain had St. Augustine, Florida (1565), the first European city in what is now the U.S. The French had short-lived colonies like Fort Caroline (Florida, 1564).

More on that – The early French presence in what is now the United States began in the early 1500s, primarily through exploration rather than settlement. In 1524, Giovanni da Verrazzano, an Italian sailing for France, explored the East Coast from the Carolinas to New York Harbor. Later, in 1534, Jacques Cartier began exploring the St. Lawrence River, laying the groundwork for French claims in North America through the explorations of people like Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette (1673) and René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle (1682), who claimed the Mississippi River basin for France and named it Louisiana in honor of King Louis XIV.

By the mid-1500s, the French attempted colonization, most notably with Fort Caroline (1564) in present-day Florida, established by Huguenots seeking religious freedom. However, the Spanish destroyed Fort Caroline in 1565. Despite these early efforts, sustained French settlement in the U.S. didn’t take hold until the 1600s, with the expansion of Louisiana and fur trading networks.

The earliest known German involvement in what is now the United States dates back to the 1500s, primarily through explorers and mercenaries serving under Spanish and Dutch expeditions. In 1608, a small group of German artisans arrived in Jamestown, Virginia, sent by the Virginia Company to establish industries like glassblowing and shipbuilding. The first significant German settlement, however, came later with Germantown, Pennsylvania (1683), founded by German Quakers and Mennonites seeking religious freedom. Though their presence was initially small, German immigrants played a key role in early colonial industries, particularly in Pennsylvania and New York.

Swedish colonization efforts in North America began with the establishment of New Sweden (1638-1655) along the Delaware River, covering parts of modern Delaware, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey. Led by Peter Minuit, who had previously governed New Netherland, the Swedes built Fort Christina (present-day Wilmington, Delaware) as their main settlement. The colony introduced log cabin construction, which became a staple of American frontier life. Despite early success, New Sweden was short-lived—by 1655, the Dutch under Peter Stuyvesant conquered the colony and absorbed it into New Netherland, though Swedish influence remained in the region.

There is so much more I could say on this, but I’ll save that for another time. For now I just want to point out several of these early settlements, and think of how much can happen within 200 years by the time we see the American Industrial Revolution kicking off in the 1860s.

Did the Pilgrims Connect with Other Europeans?

When the Pilgrims arrived, there were already European fishermen, traders, and explorers who had been active along the coast. They weren’t completely alone, but they were relatively isolated in terms of permanent settlements.

A key figure was Squanto, a Native American who had been kidnapped by English traders, learned English, and later helped the Pilgrims survive. Without his guidance (and the Wampanoag), the colony might have failed.

So, while the Pilgrims were not the “first,” they were unique in being a self-governing community of families rather than just explorers, traders, or conquerors.

To Wrap This Up

While Columbus’s voyages were significant in sparking widespread European exploration, he was far from the first to set foot in the Americas. From Norse sailors to Spanish conquistadors and possibly even earlier trans-oceanic visitors, the history of pre-Columbian contact with North America is rich and complex. What we do know for certain is that Indigenous peoples had been thriving on these lands for thousands of years before any European arrival, developing advanced civilizations, trade networks, and unique cultures. 

Columbus may have opened the door for European colonization, but the story of who first set foot in North America stretches far beyond his expeditions. On top of that, there are quite a number of structures in North America that are still widely debated about their origins, who built them, and when.